2.1. Study sites

The study was conducted in the province of Laguna, Philippines, specifically in Barangay San Cristobal, San Pablo and Barangay Tala, Rizal. These two barangays are approximately situated 90–100 km southeast of Manila (Figure 1). These are rural areas that are recognised as agricultural production areas due to the land allocated for growing a variety of crops, including vegetables and fruits. Both sites are characterised by having undulating to very steep terrain and fall under climate type III, which has no very pronounced maximum rain period, with the dry season occurring either from December to February or from March to May (PAGASA, 2014).

2.2. Establishing a partnership

Collaboration among stakeholders at each study site was considered crucial for facilitating the project effectively and ensuring its successful implementation. Hence, partnerships were formed prior to the project implementation among the implementers, people’s organisations (POs), and local government units (LGUs). The Mamay Tobal Farmer’s Association of Barangay San Cristobal, San Pablo and Sto. Niño Farmers Association of Barangay Tala, Rizal, Laguna, served as the main partners for this project. Although local farmers were the primary beneficiaries of this initiative, LGUs were also recognised as collaborators. Throughout the entire project cycle, the implementers worked closely with some of the municipal offices responsible for providing agricultural support, managing natural resources and planning various development programmes within their localities. Specifically, these involved the municipal agriculture, municipal environment and natural resources, and the municipal planning and development office.

2.3. Selection of land to serve as agroforestry models

A consultation was conducted with local farmers and representatives of LGUs to identify the best farm for establishing an agroforestry model. This process ensured that the selected farms met the set of criteria and gained community support. For each study site, the selected farms to serve as agroforestry models were chosen based on the following criteria:

Farm Characteristics:

• The farm has a minimum area of 1,500 m² to provide sufficient space for integrating agroforestry practices.
• The farm must be strategically located to ensure accessibility to many, especially other farmers interested in observing the practices being demonstrated.

Farm Owner Qualifications:

• The farm must be owned by farmers to ensure security and easily facilitate the necessary decision-making in planning and implementing agroforestry activities.
• The farm owner must be an active member of the farmers’ association in the barangay to ensure their active involvement in agricultural practices and be committed to collaboration.
• The farmer must be willing to allocate part of the farm for agroforestry model development.
• The farmer must be willing to dedicate time to both setting up and maintaining the model farm.
• The farmer must be willing to record all farm activities, including harvests, and understand the importance of this data for the farm’s overall development.
• The farmer must be willing to engage in regular monitoring and evaluation to track the progress of the model farm.
• The farmer must be willing to collaborate with project implementers, groups, or institutions to help ensure the smooth implementation of activities.
• The farmer must be willing to participate in agreements established by the farmers’ association concerning the sharing of products produced from the established agroforestry model farm.
• The farmer must be willing to allow other farmers and interested individuals to visit and observe the established agroforestry model as a learning and demonstration area.
• The farmer must be eager to share experiences and insights related to agroforestry practices with fellow farmers and other individuals.
• The farmer must be committed to promoting agroforestry systems within their locality.

2.4. Agroforestry land capability assessment

The Agroforestry Land Capability Assessment and Mapping Scheme (ALCAMS), a tool developed by the Institute of Agroforestry, was used to assess the land’s capability to support agroforestry. At the farm level, three major factors were considered: slope, existing vegetation and soil fertility.

1. Slope: The slope was calculated using the conventional approach, where the rise was divided by the run, and the resulting value was multiplied by 100 to get the percentage. Along with the metre tape and metre stick, the A-frame was used as a levelling tool.
2. Existing vegetation: This was assessed by determining the current land use, including the identification of existing crops such as vegetables and perennial trees.
3. Soil fertility: This was quantified by collecting a composite soil sample from each farm. These samples were sent to the Soils Laboratory of Analytical Services Laboratory, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the Philippines Los Baños, where various soil physical and chemical properties were assessed, including soil texture, pH level, organic matter content, phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen.

The results of the assessment of each of these key factors were categorised based on the criteria outlined in Table 1. The resulting combination of the categorised factors determined the specific land capability classes (Tables 2–5), which were crucial in determining the appropriate agroforestry intervention for specific land.

The following classification was used to assess the capability of land to support agroforestry:

1. Class I (Highly capable for agroforestry): Areas under this category have slopes ranging from 0–18%, are either covered with existing vegetation or utilised as brushland/pasture and may already be planted with perennial crops or cultivated annual crops. These lands are classified as alienable and disposable, with medium to high soil fertility. This indicates a high potential for agroforestry, where incorporation of soil and water conservation may not be necessary. The only limitation is the suitability of crops within the area.
2. Class II (Marginally capable for agroforestry): This class includes areas with either of the following conditions: a slope of 0–18% with low soil fertility, or a slope of 18–50% under cultivation, regardless of the crop type. It indicates that the implementation of soil and water conservation measures may be required for agroforestry to be sustainable.
3. Class III (Conditionally capable for agroforestry): This class refers to areas with more than 50% slope, either used for cultivation with low soil fertility or utilised as brushland/pasture with low soil fertility. This indicates that proper soil and water conservation practices are required to establish agroforestry.
4. Class IV (Not for agroforestry use): Any land that has a slope greater than 50% and either currently used as forest land or any public land that is being used for specific purposes such as forest reserves or parks. This suggests that the land is more suitable for uses other than agroforestry.

2.5. Establishment of agroforestry models

The farm-level biophysical assessment conducted at each study site served as the basis for selecting the appropriate agroforestry system to be established. The choice of agricultural crops and perennial tree species was made upon consultation with stakeholders, including local farmers and local agricultural technicians. This participatory decision was crucial to ensure that all aspects of the established agroforestry model were tailored to the specific local needs and conditions. The establishment phase, which includes the layout and planting of selected crops and trees, was carried out with the active involvement of the local farmers, particularly those who were active members of the PO. These farmers were not only involved in the planting stage but also took part in monitoring and managing the established agroforestry model. The agroforestry model farms were established in August 2024.

2.6. Monitoring of agroforestry models

Monitoring the agroforestry model is essential to assess the system’s progress and performance. For this project, monitoring was conducted over a period of seven (7) months, from September 2024 to March 2025. The growth performance of fruit-bearing trees was determined by measuring the actual height and diameter of each seedling using a meter stick and digital calliper, respectively. These measurements were taken every two (2) months. Additionally, the costs and revenues of the short-term crops were recorded on a per-hectare basis, including expenses for manpower, seeds and other maintenance operations.

2.7. Data analysis

Both descriptive and inferential analyses were employed to highlight the key features observed in the establishment of agroforestry models. The Wilcoxon rank test was used to compare the growth performance among the different plant species.

3.1. Farm characteristics

Each model farm exhibited distinct biophysical characteristics which influence its suitability for agroforestry development (Table 6). While the two model farms are nearly similar in their land area, their elevation and slope differ. A gentle slope was observed in Barangay San Cristobal, implying a more accessible and less susceptible area to erosion. Conversely, the higher elevation and steeper slope in Barangay Tala indicate a challenging farm management system, particularly in terms of soil conservation. In terms of soil texture and fertility, both had sandy loam soil and low fertility, which explains why they were classified as Class II – marginally capable for agroforestry. Despite this, several agroforestry systems can be employed on both sites. Considering the landscape of Barangay San Cristobal and the presence of various fruit-bearing tree species that can thrive therein, a fruit-tree-based agroforestry was chosen as a suitable agroforestry system in the area. Meanwhile, an alley cropping system was employed as an agroforestry system in Barangay Tala due to its potential for production and soil and water conservation.

3.2. Agroforestry system established at each study site

The fruit tree-based agroforestry system established in Barangay San Cristobal, San Pablo, serves as a model for sustainable farming (Figure 2a). The integration of high-value fruit trees, such as avocado (Perseaamericana), lanzones (Lansiumdomesticum), and durian (Duriozibethinus), along with short-term agricultural crops, demonstrates the multifunctional features of agroforestry. The use of these high-value fruit trees was vital, as they have been identified as well-suited to the area and address long-term economic and environmental sustainability by diversifying farm income and supporting ecosystem services.

In this agroforestry model, the integration of short-term crops such as eggplant (Solanum melongena), string beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), squash (Cucurbita maxima), and long green chilli pepper (Capsicum sp.) through intercropping provides immediate sources of food and economic needs while waiting for the fruit trees to mature. Practising intercropping techniques in agroforestry helps not only to optimise the land’s economic potential but also to boost biodiversity (Moreira et al., 2024) and reduce the incidence of pests and other diseases (Toker et al., 2024). In countries like Vietnam and Ethiopia, similar agroforestry systems demonstrated multiple benefits, including higher economic return in the long run and support ecosystem services such as soil erosion reduction, carbon sequestration, and maintain soil moisture and fertility (Bogale et al., 2023; Do et al., 2020).

Meanwhile, the alley cropping system established in Barangay Tala, Rizal, is characterised as an innovative practice addressing concerns on soil and water conservation, biodiversity enhancement and economic management for farmers in sloping and/or marginal lands (Figure 2b). In particular, alley cropping is a form of agroforestry system in which rows of trees and/or shrubs are planted along the contour line while short-term crops are cultivated along the alleys (Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022). By using kakawate (Gliricidia sepium) as hedgerows, it acts as a soil conservation measure by significantly reducing soil and nutrient loss through their above and below biomass (Xiao et al., 2024). Similarly, the nitrogen-fixing properties of kakawate improve organic matter and other soil properties (Srinivasa Rao et al., 2011). In addition to the soil quality, the alley cropping system established in Barangay Tala optimises land use by combining perennial hedgerows with short-term crops such as eggplant (Solanum melongena), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), mustard greens (Brassica juncea) and radish (Raphanus sativus). These short-term crops offer a valuable contribution to the overall food production, making agroforestry not only economically viable but also addressing food security.

Additionally, in high-elevation areas like Barangay Tala, the area is exposed to strong winds, particularly during the northeast monsoon. This exposure can result in soil erosion and crop damage, which is a common concern among farmers in mountainous areas. To mitigate this concern, the agroforestry system model in Barangay Tala integrates perennials along its boundary to serve as windbreaks. Perennial trees such as lipote (Syzygium polycephaloides), duhat (Syzygium cumini), pili (Canarium ovatum) and even mango (Mangifera indica) were among the chosen species for windbreak due to their stability and potential in enhancing ecosystem services such as the provision of shade, maintenance of soil structure and moisture, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation (Lasco et al., 2015). Likewise, these trees can provide extra income for the farmers once they mature and produce fruits and/or nuts.

3.3. Monitoring agroforestry model farms

3.4. Lessons to carry forward

The establishment of agroforestry models using a participatory approach has generated essential lessons or insights that can serve as a guide for future initiatives. These are the following:

1. Community engagement builds ownership – Active involvement of stakeholders throughout the project phases (planning, decision-making, implementation) can shape a strong sense of ownership. This tends to potentially increase their commitment to devote time and effort to ensure success.
2. Capacity building empowers farmers – Initiatives such as training sessions and exposure trips to successful farms practising sustainable techniques enable farmers to develop an in-depth understanding of agroforestry concepts and principles. Hands-on experience also boosts farmers’ confidence in managing and adopting agroforestry effectively on their own farms.
3. Harmonising local and scientific knowledge is crucial – Effective agroforestry initiatives are founded on the combination of local knowledge and scientific principles. Local farmers have a deep understanding of the environment in which they live — plant species that thrive in the area, local climate, the season for planting, and even soil conditions are essential, which is crucial for planning and designing an appropriate agroforestry system. Through the integration of scientific and local knowledge, the agroforestry model can be more adaptive to the current site conditions and more readily accepted by the community.
4. Good coordination is facilitated by clearly defined roles and responsibilities – Defining stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities from the initiation phase promotes accountability, ensures active participation, and helps avoid confusion and conflicts. Consistent communication and open discussions among stakeholders are also effective strategies for keeping everyone informed and staying on track.
5. Working together for a common drive to success – When individuals come together to achieve a common goal, voluntary cooperation becomes a powerful catalyst for any initiative’s success. The willingness to collaborate and contribute without expecting anything in return builds social capital and strengthens the ability to overcome challenges. In the Philippines, this spirit is locally known as “bayanihan”, a deeply ingrained cultural value that highlights communal unity and cooperation.